Intracellular
localisation of Borrelia burgdorferi
This
list probably not complete – if you find that an important article, that demonstrate
intracellular Borrelia is missing
in the list, please send me a note at kroun@ulmar.dk
The histopathology of experimentally infected hamsters
with the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi.
Duray PH, Johnson
RC. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1986 Feb; 181(2): 263-9. PMID:
3945634
Seven
hamsters, experimentally infected with Borrelia burgdorferi, were
examined by both cultural and histological techniques at 1 to 9 months postinfection. Spirochetes were detected in the spleen,
kidney, or eye of all animals by culture and in the spleen, kidney, eye, liver,
or heart blood of five of seven animals by histological examination. Two
animals showed nonspecific hepatic portal lymphocytic
infiltration, while five of the hamsters displayed no significant histologic signs of inflammation or granuloma
formation in the major organ systems. Synovitis and arthropathy did not occur. All animals showed some degree
of follicular lymphoid hyperplasia of the spleen. Spirochetes were
predominantly extracellular with a rare organism
appearing to be partially within a macrophage.
Penetration of endothelial cell monolayers
by Borrelia burgdorferi.
Comstock LE, Thomas DD. Infect Immun 1989 May; 57(5): 1626-8. PMID: 2707862 PDF
The ability
of Borrelia burgdorferi, the agent of Lyme disease, to penetrate
cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cell monolayers
was investigated. After 4 h of coincubation,
approximately 7.7% of added bacteria passed through the host cell monolayers. Electron microscopy revealed that the borreliae entered the endothelial cells and suggested that
the organisms penetrated the host monolayers primarily
by passing through them.
Characterization of Borrelia burgdorferi
invasion of cultured endothelial cells.
Comstock LE, Thomas DD. Microb Pathog 1991
Feb; 10(2): 137-48. PMID: 1890951
Borrelia
burgdorferi can adhere to cultured endothelial cells and
penetrate through cell monolayers by passing through
intercellular tight junctions and through the host cell cytoplasm. Borrelia
burgdorferi strains which were isolated from different sources and areas of
the
Intracellular localization of Borrelia burgdorferi
within human endothelial cells.
Ma Y, Sturrock A, Weis
JJ. Infect Immun
1991 Feb; 59(2):
671-8. PMID: 1987083 PDF
The
later stages of infection by the Lyme disease pathogen, Borrelia burgdorferi,
are characterized by the persistence of the organism in individuals possessing
a strong anti-Borrelia immune response. This suggests that the organism is
sequestered in a tissue protected from the immune system of the host or there
is a reservoir of the organism residing within the cells of the host. In this
report, the ability of B. burgdorferi to gain entrance into human
umbilical vein endothelial cells was explored as a model for invasion.
Incubation of B. burgdorferi with human umbilical vein endothelial cells
at ratios ranging from 200:1 to 5,000:1 resulted in the intracellular
localization of 10 to 25% of B. burgdorferi in 24 h. The intracellular
location of the spirochetes was demonstrated by the incorporation of radiolabeled B. burgdorferi into a trypsin-resistant compartment and was confirmed by double-immunofluorescence staining which differentiated
intracellular from extracellular organisms. Actin-containing microfilaments were required for the
intracellular localization, indicating that the host cell participates in the
internalization process. Activation of endothelial cells by agents known to
increase the expression of several adhesion molecules had no effect on the
interaction of B. burgdorferi with the endothelial monolayer. This
indicates that the endothelial receptor for B. burgdorferi is
constitutively expressed and that internalization is not dependent upon
adhesion molecules whose expression is induced by inflammatory mediators. The
demonstration of B. burgdorferi within endothelial cells suggest that
intracellular localization may be a potential mechanism by which the organism
escapes from the immune response of the host and may contribute to persistence
of the organism during the later stages of Lyme disease.
The fate of Borrelia burgdorferi in Mouse Macrophages:
Destruction, Survival, Recovery
Montgomery RR, Nathanson MH, Malawista SE. (1992)
V Int Conf Lb abs#143. 1992-co143, see also PMID: 8423346
The macrophage
is a known reservoir for a number of infectious agents, and is therefore a
likely candidate for a privileged site where B. burgdorferi, the Lyme
spirochete, may persist. We have shown that B. burgdorferi can enter
macrophages, resulting in one instance in degradation and in another in
apparent intracellular persistence. We studied uptake of B. burgdorferi
by the mouse macrophage cell lime, J774, by simultaneously labeling infected
cells with antibodies to B. burgdorferi and to sequential components of
the endocytic pathway: the late endosome
and lysosome marker, lysosomal
glycoprotein (lgp) 110, or the lysosomal
hydrolase, cathepsin L. We
examined optical sections (0.5-1.0 ?m in thickness) of
these double-labeled macrophages by confocal
fluorescence microscopy at multiple time points after infection. We found that
only 5 minutes of incubation at
Persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi in Chronic Lyme Disease:
Altered Immune Regulation or Evasion into Immunologically
privileged sites?
Häupl T, Krause
A, Rittig M, Schoerner C, Kalden JR, Simon M, Wallich R, Burmester GR. (1992)
V Int Conf Lb abs#149. 1992-co149
Patients
with Lyme borreliosis (LB) usually develop a vigorous
T cell response against the causative pathogen, but little is known about the
antigens recognized. Therefore, T cell responses against whole B.
burgdorferi (B.b.), outer surface protein A (OspA)
and flagellin from B.b.
were studied in patients with LB, patients with inflammatory disorders not
related to LB, and normal donors. LB patients of all stages exhibited
significantly elevated cellular responses to whole B.b.
These were directed in part against OspA and flagellin.
However, not all patients responded significantly to these proteins. T cell
reactivity did not correlate with the presence of specific antibodies as
determined by both Western Blot and immunofluorescence
assay. 55% of patients with early LB and 80% of patients with late LB had
detectable antibodies against B.b.- Almost all
seropositive patients showed serum antibodies against flagellin,
but antibodies to OspA were detectable only in 4 late LB sera. In one
patient with chronic LB, B.b. could be cultured from
tendon material and was visualized by electron microscopy. The organisms were
both present between collagen fibers and were associated with fibroblasts
showing invaginatet and partially intracellular
spirochetes. Interestingly, this patient was seronegative at the time of establishing the B.b. strain, but still had elevated T cell responses to the
whole organism and OspA. These data demonstrate that the T cell response
determined in vitro does not indicate a protective immune response. This may be
due to the acti-vation of a T cell population lacking
the appropriate lymphokine profile or to an evasion
of the B.b. into immunologically
privileged sites.
[see published article: Persistence of Borrelia
burgdorferi in ligamentous tissue from a patient
with chronic Lyme borreliosis.]
Fibroblasts protect the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia
burgdorferi, from ceftriaxone in vitro.
Georgilis K, Peacocke M, Klempner MS. J Infect
Dis 1992
Aug; 166(2): 440-4. PMID: 1634816
PDF
The
Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, can be recovered long
after initial infection, even from antibiotic-treated patients, indicating that
it resists eradication by host defense mechanisms and antibiotics. Since B. burgdorferi first
infects skin, the possible protective effect of skin fibroblasts from an
antibiotic commonly used to treat Lyme disease, ceftriaxone,
was examined. Human foreskin fibroblasts protected B. burgdorferi from
the lethal action of a 2-day exposure to ceftriaxone
at 1 microgram/mL, 10-20 x MBC. In the absence of
fibroblasts, organisms did not survive. Spirochetes were not protected from
ceftriaxone by glutaraldehyde-fixed
fibroblasts or fibroblast lysate, suggesting that a
living cell was required. The ability of the organism to survive in the
presence of fibroblasts was not related to its infectivity. Fibroblasts
protected B. burgdorferi for at least 14 days of exposure to ceftriaxone. Mouse keratinocytes,
HEp-2 cells, and Vero cells but not Caco-2 cells showed the same protective
effect. Thus, several eukaryotic cell types provide the Lyme disease spirochete
with a protective environment contributing to its long-term survival.
The fate of Borrelia burgdorferi, the
agent for Lyme disease, in mouse macrophages. Destruction, survival, recovery.
The
macrophage is a known reservoir for a number of infectious agents, and is
therefore a likely candidate site for persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi,
the Lyme spirochete. We report that unopsonized B.
burgdorferi enter macrophages rapidly, resulting mainly in degradation but
occasionally in apparent intracellular persistence. We studied uptake of
spirochetes by macrophages by simultaneously labeling infected cells with
antibodies to B. burgdorferi and with sequential components of the endocytic pathway, and we examined optical sections
(0.5-1.0 micron in thickness) of these cells by confocal
fluorescence microscopy at multiple time points after infection. We found that
only 5 min of incubation at 37 degrees C were required for nearly 100% of B.
burgdorferi to enter a lysosomal
glycoprotein-positive compartment, whereas 60 min were required for 90% of the
spirochetes to appear in a cathepsin L-positive
compartment under the same conditions. We also labeled infected living cells
with acridine orange to distinguish live from killed
intracellular organisms. Although the large majority of spirochetes within a
given cell were dead, we saw occasional live ones up to 24 h (the longest
interval examined) after all extracellular organisms
had been lysed in distilled water. Moreover, we
can reculture spirochetes from macrophages after
infection. Persistence of spirochetes within macrophages provides a possible pathogenetic mechanism for chronic or recurrent Lyme
disease in man.
Invasion of human skin fibroblasts by the Lyme disease
spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi.
Klempner MS, Noring R,
The ability
of Borrelia burgdorferi to attach to and invade human fibroblasts was
investigated by scanning electron and confocal
microscopy. By scanning electron microscopy, B. burgdorferi were
tightly adherent to fibroblast monolayers after 24-48
h but were eliminated from the cell surface by treatment with ceftriaxone (1 microgram/mL) for
5 days. Despite the absence of visible spirochetes on the cell surface after
antibiotic treatment, viable B. burgdorferi were isolated from lysates of the fibroblast monolayers.
B. burgdorferi were observed in the perinuclear
region within human fibroblasts by laser scanning confocal
microscopy. Intracellular spirochetes specifically labeled with monoclonal
anti-flagellin antibody were also identified by
fluorescent laser scanning confocal microscopy. These
observations suggest that B. burgdorferi can adhere to, penetrate, and
invade human fibroblasts in organisms that remain viable.
Electron microscopy of Langerhans
cells and Borrelia burgdorferi in Lyme disease patients.
Hulinska D, Bartak P, Hercogova J, Hancil J, Basta J, Schramlova J. Int J Med Microbiol Virol Parasitol Infect Dis 1994 Jan; 280(3): 348-59. PMID: 8167429
To
investigate dermal and epidermal involvement in the presence of Borrelia
burgdorferi and to analyze the role of Langerhans
cells and keratinocytes, 14 cases of erythema
chronicum migrans and two controls were studied by means of electron
microscopy, using negative staining and sectioning techniques. Using immunoelectron microscopy and histochemistry,
positive results for B. burgdorferi were disclosed in 5 cases of
erythema chronicum migrans and 3 cases of neuroborreliosis
which were confirmed by cultivation. We cultured 4 stains of B. burgdorferi
from the skin, 1 from blood and 2 from cerebrospinal fluid in BSK medium. Near to the centre of erythema chronicum
migrans with focal necrosis were both a dissolved basal membrane and keratinocyte desmosomes
surrounding damaged B. burgdorferi cells in the epidermis. Markedly oedematous keratinocytes and Langerhans cells with B. burgdorferi were released
into lymphocyte infiltrates. At the periphery of all erythema chronicum
migrans lesions, keratinocytes were well preserved
while all dendritic cells seemed to be vacuolated.
Above foci of B. burgdorferi located perivascular
or among collagen fibers, Langerhans cells were
frequent and more granulated. The possible role of Langerhans
cells in the identification and elimination of B. burgdorferi is
discussed.
Localization of Borrelia burgdorferi in murine Lyme borreliosis by
electron microscopy.
Lyme borreliosis is a newly recognized systemic infection with
protean clinical manifestations. Because the localization of the causative
spirochete (Borrelia burgdorferi) in infected tissues is unknown,
we used electron microscopy to find spirochetes in the hearts of chronically
infected mice. There were three predominant locations for the spirochete in the
hearts. In mice infected for one month or less, the spirochetes were mostly in
or around blood vessels. They were either in the lumen or in the perivascular space. Mice infected for more than one
month had B. burgdorferi in cardiac myocytes
as well, often with clear spaces around them. The third area in which
spirochetes were common was collagen fibers; the borreliae
were wrapped around fibers with their long axis parallel to the fibers. The
number of spirochetes was relatively low, but there was no appreciable decrease
in numbers of spirochetes with increasing time postinfection.
Inflammatory infiltrates were primarily in the endocardium
and pericardium, but spirochetes were generally not in or near areas of
inflammation. These data are consistent with previously published information
that have identified the heart as a site of chronic
infection and inflammation in the mouse. The studies extend our understanding
of the behavior of the spirochete in vivo by identifying common locations of B.
burgdorferi and by noting the disparity between infection and inflammation.
Intracellular morphological events observed by electron microscopy on neutrophil phagocytosis of Borrelia
garinii
Hulinska D, Basta J, Murgia R, Cinco M. J Spiro Tick Diseases 1995; 2:82-86.
Electron
microscopy was used to present morphological events, which accompany the uptake
of Borrelia garinii by polymorphonuclear
leukocytes (PMNs) and intracellular events of phagocytosis throughout 2 hours of contact. Phagocytosis of borreliae
proceeded very quickly, and seemed to be independent of opsonins.
Opsonized borreliae emitted
membrane-bound blebs, which were attached and engulfed by PMNs.
Evidence of coiling and conventional phagocytosis
were reported in the same cell. Coiling phagcytosis
was time dependent (number of spirochetes internalized by this mechanism with
time increased) but was not the preferential mechanism of engulfment by borreliae. Borreliae internalized
by coiling phagocytosis were less morphologically
altered, and their flagellae protruded into the host cytoplasms. The spirochetes were found discharged in PMN cytoplasm, and were not surrounded by a phagosomal membrane. This could be one of the possible
mechanisms of persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi in the host organism.
Entry of Borrelia burgdorferi into macrophages is end-on and
leads to degradation in lysosomes.
The Lyme
disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, is ingested rapidly by mouse
macrophages in vitro. Spirochetes attach by their ends and become progressively
coiled as they move deeper into cells. From the earliest measurements, spirochetes
colocalize with a marker of endosomes
and lysosomes, and degradation of spirochetes occurs
within lysosomes.
Malawista:
"We have demonstrated that spirochetes enter macrophages end on, are
quickly localized in endosomes and lysosomes, and are degraded in the lysosomes.
The clarification of initial events in Bb ingestion by macrophages extends our
previous work to the ultrastructural level (27) but does
not yet explain the occasionally observed cell-associated persistence."
[This is discussed and an answer implied in The Biology of Parasitic
Spirochetes, 1976.]
Eucaryotic cells protect Borrelia burgdorferi from the action of penicillin
and ceftriaxone but not from the action of doxycycline and erythromycin.
Brouqui P, Badiaga S, Raoult D. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996 Jun; 40(6): 1552-4. PMID: 8726038
PDF
Despite
appropriate antibiotic treatment, Lyme disease patients may have relapses or
may develop chronic manifestations. The intracellular location of Borrelia
burgdorferi suggests that antibiotics that penetrate cells will have
greater efficiency. Doxycycline or erythromycin was
more effective than penicillin or ceftriaxone in
killing B. burgdorferi when the organism was grown in the presence of eucaryotic cells.
Ultrastructural demonstration
of spirochetal antigens in synovial fluid and
synovial membrane in chronic Lyme disease: possible factors contributing to
persistence of organisms.
Nanagara R, Duray PH, Schumacher HR Jr. Hum Pathol
1996 Oct;
27(10): 1025-34. PMID: 8892586
To perform
the first systematic electronmicroscopic (EM) and immunoelectron microscopy
(IEM) study of the pathological changes and the
evidence of spirochete presence in synovial membranes and synovial fluid (SF)
cells of patients with chronic Lyme arthritis. EM
examination was performed on four synovial membrane and eight SF cell samples
from eight patients with chronic Lyme disease. Spirochetal
antigens in the samples were sought by IEM using
monoclonal antibody to Borrelia burgdorferi outer surface protein A
(OspA) as the immunoprobe. Prominent ultrastructural findings were surface fibrin-like material,
thickened synovial lining cell layer and signs of vascular injury. Borrelia-like
structures were identified in all four synovial membranes and in two of eight
SF cell samples. The presence of spirochetal
antigens was confirmed by IEM in all four samples
studied (one synovial membrane and three SF cell samples). OspA labelling was in perivascular
areas, deep synovial stroma among collagen bundles,
and in vacuoles of fibroblasts in synovial membranes; and in cytophagosomes of mononuclear cells in SF cell samples.
Electron microscopy adds further evidence for persistence of spirochetal antigens in the joint in chronic Lyme disease. Locations
of spirochetes or spirochetal antigens both intracellulary and extracellulary
in deep synovial connective tissue as reported here suggest sites at which spirochaetes may elude host immune response and antibiotic
treatment.
Intracellular persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi
in human synovial cells.
Girschick HJ, Huppertz HI, Russmann H, Krenn V, Karch H. Rheumatol Int 1996;
16(3): 125-32. PMID: 8893378
To
investigate if Borrelia burgdorferi can persist in resident joint cells,
an infection model using cell cultures of human synovial cells was established
and compared to the interaction of Borrelia burgdorferi and human
macrophages. Borrelia burgdorferi were found attached to the cell
surface or folded into the cell membrane of synovial cells analysed
by transmission electron and confocal laser scanning
microscopy. In contrast to macrophages, morphologically intact Borrelia
burgdorferi were found in the cytosol of synovial
cells without engulfment by cell membrane folds or phagosomes.
Borrelia burgdorferi were isolated from parallel cultures. Treatment
with ceftriaxone eradicated extracellular
Borrelia burgdorferi, but spirochetes were reisolated
after lysis of the synovial cells. Borrelia
burgdorferi persisted inside synovial cells for at least 8 weeks. These
data suggested that Borrelia burgdorferi might be able to persist within
resident joint cells in vivo.
Heterogeneity of Borrelia burgdorferi in the
skin.
Aberer E, Kersten A, Klade H, Poitschek C, Jurecka W. Am J Dermatopathol 1996
Dec; 18(6): 571-9. PMID: 8989928
The
reliability of various in vitro techniques to identify Borrelia burgdorferi
infection is still unsatisfactory. Using a high-power resolution videomicroscope and staining with the borrelia
genus-specific monoclonal flagellar antibody H9724,
we identified borrelial structures in skin biopsies
of erythema chronicum migrans (from which borrelia
later was cultured), of acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans, and of morphea. In
addition to typical borreliae, we noted stained
structures of varying shapes identical to borreliae
found in a "borrelia-injected skin" model;
identical to agar-embedded borreliae; and identical
to cultured borreliae following exposure to hyperimmune sera and/or antibiotics. We conclude that the
H9724-reactive structures represent various forms of B. burgdorferi
rather than staining artifacts. These "atypical" forms of B.
burgdorferi may represent in vivo morphologic variants of this
bacterium."
Excerpts:
p. 573
Studies with antibiotics revealed similar morphologic changes although the
formation of granules of a much larger size (spheroblast-like
structures) was obvious (fig. 5a).
Vibrio-like forms associated with granules were
visualized in the epidermis (Fig. 3b) or short rods in perineural
spaces.
Bizarre, heavily stained borreliae were visualized on
serial sections (Fig. 9a-d), intracellularly
in a macrophage (Fig 4b.), or in the epidermis (Fig. 3b). Large granules or
spherical bodies ("gemmae") 1-3 ,um were detected among collagen fibers (Fig. 5b)
comparable to cysts arising after culture experiments (Fig. 5a).
p. 574
The morphological forms of borreliae
seen in biopsies were correlated with clinical findings. Seropositive patients
showed clumped and agglutinated borreliae in tissue
(Fig. 4b), whereas seronegative patients exhibited borreliae colony formation (n=2) (Figs. 7b,8b). Neuralgies arising
6 months after ECM in spite of antibiotic therapy
were evident in a seronegative
patient who showed perineural rod-like borrelia structures. In ACA
samples we identified agglutinated, intertwined spirochetal
forms that resembled the clumped, dying borreliae
seen in our culture experiments. In areas with inflammatory infiltrates,
delicate dispersed, serpentine organisms were seen in degenerating collagen
fibers. Also, small granular structures were evident among collagen fibers
(Fig. 6b).
In biopsy sections from morphea patients, the number
of borreliae was low. Yet, heavily stained
intertwined forms and, in one case, clusters of delicate borreliae
were seen within collagen fibers (Fig. 2d). Similarly, variant spirochetal forms were present in biopsies of three
patients with plaque-like and papular eruptions
arising at previous ECM sites. Histologically,
two of these biopsies revealed epitheloid cell granulomas: skin sarcoidosis in
one and cheilitis granulomatosa
in the other patient. The third case represented lymphocytoma
of the skin.
p. 576-78
The extracellular location
of typical borreliae was not necessarily associated
with the presence of an inflammatory infiltrate. Rather, these borrelia forms were seen in seronegative
patients with uncomplicated ECM. If the extracellular borreliae were
accompanied by an inflammatory infiltrate, the bacteria exhibited a
heterogeneous morphology. Heavily stained, clumped, and aggregated borreliae and granules, formed by action of hyperimmune sera, were evident as were degererative
changes in the connective tissue.
Whether borreliae can be located intracellularly
has been heavily debated. In vitro studies demonstrated that borreliae actively penetrate endothelial cells (31) and
fibroblasts, where they apparently evade eradication by antibiotics (32). The
presence of borreliae in macrophages and keratinocytes, as shown in our studies and also in Berger's
silver staining studies, supports the hitherto unproven concept that borreliae may survive intracellularly
(33). Whether borreliae are also present in Langerhans cells could not be elucidated by this technique,
although recent data suggest that borreliae invade
and selectively damage them, as shown ultrastructurally
(2).
The conditions necessary for the development of borrelia
granules and their function are still unclear. The granules, which do not
typically form under short-term culture conditions, do evolve in solid media
(21), as well as in oral spirochetes (20,24), T. pallidum (23), and old acidic cultures of B. burgdorferi
(34). Cystic borrelia forms have also been reported
in tissue imprints of patients with Alzheimer disease (35). The development of
spherical bodies or "gemmae" had been
repeatedly observed in meticulous studies of spirochetal
organisms over 40 years ago (20,23,24), as well as
recently under varying culture conditions (26,36), in skin tissue (1,2), and
after exposure to antibiotics (25,37).
Our results lead to several conclusions. First, the videomicroscopy
technique described here has made possible the identification of borreliae in situ. Second, the behavior of borreliae within collagen fibers is strongly influenced by
immune recognition by the patient. Borreliae may
escape immune surveillance by colony formation and masking within collagen,
resulting in seroregativity. Furthermore, the
bacteria can survive in collagen fibers and cause tissue damage resulting in Iong-standing ACA, even in the
presence of anti-Bb antibodies, which are known to kill B. burgdorferi
(38). Third, whether the formation of granules or cysts represents a mode of
degeneration of borreliae or their persistence is not
yet clear. Nevertheless, simply knowing that B. burgdorferi are
morphologically diverse may explain the large spectrum of Bb-associated
diseases, may indicate a heterogenous
immune responses in individuals, and may enhance future immunohistochemical
studies of borreliae in animal models."
Invasion and cytopathic
killing of human lymphocytes by spirochetes causing Lyme disease.
Dorward DW, Fischer ER, Brooks DM. Clin
Infect Dis 1997 Jul; 25 Suppl 1: S2-8.
PMID: 9233657
Lyme disease
is a persistent low-density spirochetosis caused by Borrelia
burgdorferi sensu lato. Although spirochetes causing Lyme disease are
highly immunogenic in experimental models, the onset of specific antibody
responses to infection is often delayed or undetectable in some patients.
The properties and mechanisms mediating such immune avoidance remain obscure.
To examine the nature and consequences of interactions between Lyme disease
spirochetes and immune effector cells, we coincubated B. burgdorferi with primary and cultured
human leukocytes. We found that B. burgdorferi
actively attaches to, invades, and kills human B and T lymphocytes.
Significant killing began within 1 hour of mixing. Cytopathic
effects varied with respect to host cell lineage and the species, viability,
and degree of attenuation of the spirochetes. Both spirochetal
virulence and lymphocytic susceptibility could be phenotypically selected, thus indicating that both
bacterial and host cell factors contribute to such interactions. These
results suggest that invasion and lysis of
lymphocytes may constitute previously unrecognized factors in Lyme disease and
bacterial pathogenesis.
[In
vitro study. Beautiful Electron
Microscopic pictures of the spirochete attaching the lymfocyte
with the tip, invading the lymfocyte and later lysis of the human B- and T- lymfocyte.
This maybe implicate that the spirochete is capable of selectively searching
out the precursor lymfocytes that carries the
antibody-markers of the spirochetes and destroy these, blocking the cloning of
the antibody producing cells and hence blocking specific antibody-production
forever for instance if memory cells are eradicated?]
The isolation of Borrelia burgdorferi
spirochetes from clinical material in cell line cultures.
Tylewska Wierzbanowska S, Chmielewski T. Zentralbl Bakteriol 1997 Oct; 286(3): 363-70. PMID: 9361382
It
has been found that B. burgdorferi bacteria multiply in mouse
fibroblasts. Mouse
fibroblast of the L-929 cell line was inoculated with less than 10 up to 10(4) B.
burgdorferi cells and incubated for 2-10 days at 35 degrees C in
microaerophilic conditions. Within 2 days, visible growth was observed. The
bacteria were present in growth medium and on/in mouse fibroblasts as revealed
by the indirect immunofluorescence assay. At the same
time, development of vacuolized fibroblastic giant
cells was observed. Viable spirochetes were also detected in Eagle's medium
from a L-929 fibroblast cell line culture, after approximately 2-5 days of
incubation with blood, cerebro-spinal and synovial
fluids of Lyme borreliosis patients. The bacteria
were present in growth medium and on/in endothelial cells as revealed by the
indirect immunofluorescence assay. The
establishment of B. burgdorferi culture conditions in cell lines gives
us a possibility to isolate the etiological agent of Lyme disease from patient
blood, cerebrospinal and synovial fluids at different stages of infection.
The high sensitivity of this procedure would be helpful in a proper
identification of the infection as well as in the control of treatment
effectiveness.
Priem S, Burmester GR, Kamradt T, Wolbart K, Rittig MG, Krause A. Ann Rheum Dis 1998 Feb;57(2):118-21. PMID: 9613343 PDF
OBJECTIVES: To identify possible sites of bacterial persistence in patients with treatment resistant Lyme arthritis. It was determined whether Borrelia burgdorferi DNA may be detectable by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in synovial membrane (SM) when PCR results from synovial fluid (SF) had become negative after antibiotic therapy.
METHODS: Paired SF and SM specimens and urine samples from four patients with ongoing or recurring Lyme arthritis despite previous antibiotic therapy were investigated. A PCR for the detection of B burgdorferi DNA was carried out using primer sets specific for the ospA gene and a p66 gene of B burgdorferi.
RESULTS: In all four cases, PCR with either primer set was negative in SF and urine, but was positive with at least one primer pair in the SM specimens. In all patients arthritis completely resolved after additional antibiotic treatment.
CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that in patients with treatment resistant Lyme arthritis negative PCR results in SF after antibiotic therapy do not rule out the intraarticular persistence of B burgdorferi DNA. Therefore, in these patients both SF and SM should be analysed for borrelial DNA by PCR as positive results in SM are strongly suggestive of ongoing infection.
4: 43y F, bilateral gonarthritis 7 mo, ELISA & Western Blot high IgG, B. burgdorferi in SF and urine positive. Ceftriaxone 2g 14d without improvement. A few weeks later the patient was seen in another hospital with an acute polyarthritis involving both wrists and several metacarpophalangeal joints and a deterioration of the right gonarthritis. Doxycycline 200mg/d 30d and prednisolone 10-20 mg/d. Again there was no sufficient response. A closed needle arthrocentesis with synovial biopsy of the right knee was performed.
No mentioning of any extraarticular symptoms of Borreliosis?
Patients were evaluated 8 to 10 weeks after antibiotic therapy. All still seropositive and had active arthritis. Urine samples were collected and within one week SF and SM specimens were obtained ...
Ultrastructural demonstration of intracellular localization of Borrelia
burgdorferi in Lyme arthritis.
Chary-Valckenaere I, Jaulhac
B, Champigneulle J, Piemont
Y, Mainard D, Pourel J. Br
J Rheumatol 1998 Apr;37(4):468-70. PMID:
9619908 PDF
(unfortunately the downloadable file lack part of picture on page 469
and page 470 with the references - have written to Br J Rheum about it – no correction
of the error !!)
Abstract NA
Excerpt:
“We report here the first demonstration, to our knowledge, of B.
burgdorferi in synovial cells of a Lyme arthritis patient using chromosomal
DNA detection and ultrastructural study of the synovium.”
Interaction of Borrelia burgdorferi with
Peripheral Blood Fibrocytes, Antigen-Presenting Cells
with the Potential for Connective Tissue Targeting.
Grab DJ, Lanners H, Martin LN, Chesney J, Cai C, Adkisson HD, Bucala R. Mol Med 1999 Jan;5(1):46-54. PMID: 10072447
Background:
Borrelia Burgdorferi has a predilection for collagenous
tissue and can interact with fibronectin and cellular
collagens. While the molecular mechanisms of how B. burgdorferi targets
connective tissues and causes arthritis are not understood, the spirochetes can
bind to a number of different cell types, including fibroblasts. A novel
circulating fibroblast-like cell called the peripheral blood fibrocyte has recently been described. Fibrocytes
express collagen types I and III as well as fibronectin. Besides playing a role in wound healing, fibrocytes have the potential to target to connective
tissue and the functional capacity to recruit, activate, and present antigen to
CD4(+) T cells. Materials and Methods: Rhesus monkey fibrocytes were isolated and characterized by flow cytometry. B. burgdorferi were incubated with human
or monkey fibrocyte cultures in vitro and the cellular
interactions analyzed by light and electron microscopy. The two strains of B.
burgdorferi studied included JD1, which is highly pathogenic for monkeys,
and M297, which lacks the cell surface OspA and OspB
proteins.
Results: In this study, we demonstrate that B. burgdorferi binds to both
human and monkey (rhesus) fibrocytes in vitro. This
process does not require OspA or OspB. In
addition, the spirochetes are not phagocytosed but
are taken into deep recesses of the cell membrane, a process that may protect
them from the immune system.
Conclusions: This interaction between B. burgdorferi and peripheral
blood fibrocytes provides a potential explanation for
the targeting of spirochetes to joint connective tissue and may contribute to
the inflammatory process in Lyme arthritis.
Persistence of Borrelia garinii and Borrelia
afzelii in patients with Lyme arthritis
Hulinska D, Votypka J, Valesova M. Int J Med Microbiol Virol Parasitol Infect Dis 1999
Jul;289(3):301-18. PMID: 10467661
We
repeatedly detected DNA of Borrelia garinii or B. afzelii and Borrelia-like structures in the blood, joint
fluid or in the synovium of 10 patients with
Lyme arthritis by means of the polymerase chain reaction and immunoelectron microscopy at 2-4-month intervals in the
course of two years. All samples were analyzed using primers which amplified
the 16S rRNA gene sequence of Borrelia burgdorferi
sensu lato and nucleotide sequences for the OspA gene. No cross hybridization
occurred with DNA from human cells and with DNA from other bacteria. Capture
and labelling with monoclonal antibodies of
aggregated antigens, membranes and flagellae were
evident in the blood of 7 patients, in 4 synovial membranes and 2 synovial
fluids. Borreliae were found in blood capillaries, in
collagen and in clusters surrounding inflammatory cells in the synovium of patients with recurrent infections who carried IgM and IgG antibodies to OspA
and to 83 kDa core protein. After significant
improvement for several weeks after treatment, arthritis recurred in six
patients. Synoviocyte hyperplasia, inflammatory
infiltration and concentric adventitial fibroplasia
were seen in the synovium of the patients with
persisting borreliae. Only two patients were infected
with B. afzelii, the others with B. garinii.
Detection of Borrelia DNA in Circulating Monocytes
as Evidence of Persistent Lyme Disease
Wang P, Gartenhaus
R, Sood SK, DeVoti J,
Singer C, Dorante G, Hilton E. J Spiro Tick Diseases
7(1):16-19, 2000. 2000-js016
We report
the detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in circulating monocytes
in a 31-year-old female who presented with a flu-like syndrome followed by neurological
abnormalities after a trip to Southampton,
Insights from a novel three-dimensional in vitro model of lyme arthritis: standardized analysis of cellular and
molecular interactions between Borrelia burgdorferi and synovial
explants and fibroblasts.
Franz JK, Fritze O, Rittig M, Keysser G, Priem S, Zacher J, Burmester GR, Krause A. Arthritis Rheum 2001 Jan;44(1):151-62. PMID: 11212153
OBJECTIVE:
To develop a novel 3-dimensional (3-D) in vitro model of Lyme arthritis to use
in the study of the interactions between Borrelia burgdorferi (Bb) and
human synovial host cells with respect to phagocytosis
and potential persistence of Bb as well as the induction of proinflammatory
cytokines and chemokines. METHODS: Two distinct
culture systems, consisting of synovial membrane explants or interactive
synovial cells embedded in 3-D fibrin matrices, were chosen. Both systems were
artificially infected with Bb, and the interactions between Bb and synovial
tissue/cells were studied by histology, immunohistochemistry,
and electron microscopy. Functional analyses included the induction/secretion
of cytokines by Bb in the model system. RESULTS: Both culture systems proved to
be stable and reproducible. The host cells and spirochetes showed high levels
of viability and maintained their physiologic shape for >3 weeks. Bb
invaded the synovial tissue and the artifical matrix
in a time-dependent manner. Host cells were activated by Bb, as indicated by
the induction of interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor alpha. Electron
microscopic analysis revealed Bb intracellularly
within macrophages as well as synovial fibroblasts, suggesting that not only
professional phagocytes, but also resident synovial cells are capable of phagocytosing Bb. Most interestingly, the uptake of the
spirochetes appeared to cause severe damage of the synovial fibroblasts, since
the majority of these cells displayed ultrastructural
features of disintegration. CONCLUSION: A novel 3-D in vitro model has been
established that allows the study of distinct aspects of Lyme arthritis under
conditions that resemble the pathologic condition in humans. This reproducible,
standardized model supplements animal studies and conventional 2-D cultures.
The disintegration of synovial fibroblasts containing Bb or Bb fragments
challenges the concept of an intracellular persistence of Bb and may instead
reflect a mechanism that contributes to the inflammatory processes
characteristic of Lyme arthritis.